Annales de Zootechnie

After a brief survey of metabolic pathways and nutrient fluxes involved in mammary lipogenesis, this review summarises the known effects of diet on ruminant milk fat composition.Special attention is given to fatty acids that could play a positive role for human health, such as butyric acid, oleic acid, C18 to C22 polyunsaturated fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA).The efficiency of the transfer of C18:2, C18:3, C20:5, C22:5 and C22:6, from the duodenum to the milk, is reviewed.The main dietary factors taken into account are the nature of forages, including pasture, and the supplementation of dairy rations with protected or unprotected vegetable or fish oils.Dose-response curves of milk CLA are reviewed for different fat supplements, as well as the non-linear relationship between milk CLA and trans C18:1.The potential of dietary factors to increase the mean CLA content in cow milk fat is about 300% above basal values.There is, however, a need to evaluate how the different feeding strategies could change the other aspects of milk fat quality.ruminant / nutrition / milk / fatty acids / human health Résumé -Plasticité de la matière grasse du lait de ruminant : contrôle nutritionnel des acides gras saturés, polyinsaturés, trans et conjugués.Après un bref rappel des voies métaboliques et des flux de nutriments qui concourrent à la lipogenèse mammaire, cette revue est consacrée aux principaux effets des facteurs alimentaires sur la composition des lipides du lait de ruminant.Un intérêt particulier est porté aux acides gras qui peuvent avoir des effets positifs sur la santé humaine, tels que les acides butyrique, oléique, linoléique conjugué (CLA) et les acides gras polyinsaturés, de 18 à 22 atomes de carbone.L'efficacité du transfert des C18:2, C18:3, C20:5, C22:5 et C22:6, du duodénum au lait est estimée à partir des données de la bibliographie.Les principaux facteurs alimentaires considérés sont la nature des fourrages, dont l'herbe pâturée, et la supplémentation des rations pour vaches laitières avec des huiles végétales ou de poisson, protégées ou non.L'augmentation potentielle

Yves Chilliard

Anne Ferlay

Rosemary M. Mansbridge

Michel Doreau

Ruminant milk fat plasticity: nutritional control of saturated, polyunsaturated, trans and conjugated fatty acids

反刍动物乳脂塑性：饱和、多不饱和、反式和共轭脂肪酸的营养调控

Although the nitrate and nitrite have been used for centuries, it has only recently been discovered that nitrate is manufactured in mammals by the oxidation of nitric oxide and that the nitrate formed also has the potential for disinfecting the food we eat.The mechanisms by which nitric oxide and other nitrogen oxides provide selective toxicity towards pathogens is not yet completely understood, and it is likely that the mechanisms will be different with different organisms.Whereas it is clear that acidified nitrite is produced on mucosal surfaces, and that this combination is effective in killing a variety of human gut and skin pathogens, there is no definite evidence as yet that this mechanism is truly protective in humans exposed to a contaminated environment.Further understanding of the complex chemistry of nitrogen oxides may also help develop new antimicrobial therapies based on augmenting what seems to be a simple and effective host defence system. nitrates / nitrites / human diet / healthRésumé -Les nitrates dans l'alimentation humaine : une bonne ou une mauvaise chose ?Bien que les nitrates soient connus depuis des siècles, c'est seulement depuis peu qu'il a été découvert que les nitrates sont synthétisés chez les mammifères à partir du monoxyde d'azote, et que les nitrates formés ont la capacité de tuer les bactéries présentes dans les aliments consommés.Les mécanismes par lesquels le monoxyde d'azote et d'autres oxydes d'azote manifestent une toxicité sélective vis-à-vis de bactéries pathogènes ne sont pas encore totalement élucidés.Il est probable que ces mécanismes dépendent des organismes considérés.Alors qu'il est clair que les nitrites acidifiés sont produits à la surface des muqueuses, et que cela permet de tuer de nombreux agents pathogènes de la peau et de l'intestin de l'Homme, une incertitude demeure quant aux mécanismes de protection réels de l'Homme exposé à un environnement contaminé.Une meilleure compréhension de la chimie complexe des oxydes d'azote permettra d'aider au développement de nouvelles thérapies antibactériennes fondées sur l'accroissement de ce qui semble être un système de défense de l'hôte simple et efficace.

Nigel Benjamin

Nitrates in the human diet - good or bad?

人类饮食中的硝酸盐 - 好还是坏？

Reducing N excretion from individual cows is one way among others to better cope with the problem of the negative contribution of the dairy herd to the "Nitrogen cycle" on the farm.The objectives of this paper are first to quantify the effects of the main forage systems and protein feeding level on the amount of N excreted in relationship to their simultaneous effects on animal performances and efficiencies and then to examine the particularities of the grazing situation.N excretion depends primarily on the level of N intake i.e. on forage species, fertilisation, growth stage and protein supplementation and therefore varies between the main usual forage systems from 90 to 150 kg N per cow per year (i.e. 12 to 20 kg N per ton of milk).A simple method is proposed to calculate the load of excreta N from a dairy herd according to the specific pattern of feeding practices over the year.The effects of the level of metabolic protein supply over a wide range of dietary concentrations (80-125 g PDI per UFL) were analysed from a set of 5 feeding trials.Through that range, excreta N were largely increased and productive responses were also important (but without any residual effect), not only for milk yield (+15 to +30%) but also for milk protein concentration (+2 g .kg -1 ) and feed efficiency (+10%).The simultaneous increase observed in feed intake (+1 to +3 kg DM) accounted for half of the productive responses and could explain why the nutritive balance was hardly affected by protein levels, even in early lactation.Most of the productive parameters responded to increasing PDI levels according to laws of decreasing return that are given in the text.On the contrary, the relative N losses (excreta N per milk N) decreased curvilinearly with decreasing PDI levels reaching a minimal plateau.The concentration of 100 g PDI per UFL appears as a common key value for both phenomena: higher PDI levels results only in small increases in productive performances whereas N losses increase sharply, and the reverse occurs with lower PDI levels.At grazing, the level of N fertilisation, through the increase in sward yield and N content, is the main determinant of productive performances and losses of excreta N per ha.The other factors of sward valorisation such as stocking rate only have a moderate effect whereas the effect of concentrate supply could be low or high according to protein content.Total grazing days per ha is an integrative parameter that accounts quite well for all these factors since it reflects both sward yield and herd valorisation conditions.Roughly, each extra 100 grazing days induced by higher fertilisation increases N flows by 10-15 kg .ha -1 as milk and by 70-80 kg .ha -1 as excreta.dairy cows / nitrogen / excretion / nutrition / milk yield

Luc Delaby

Relation between nutrition, performances and nitrogen excretion in dairy cows

奶牛营养、生产性能与氮排泄之间的关系

Many of the plants eaten by farmed ruminants are capable of being genetically modified, and may in the future be modified for nutritional, agronomic or industrial purposes.Techniques are also becoming available for genetic modification of silage and ruminal bacteria.Those working in agricultural biotechnology have a clear responsibility to detect and avoid any unintended or undesirable consequences of such modifications, whether direct or indirect, upon the animal, the consumer and the environment.One of the most general concerns that has been expressed is the possibility for onward transfer of modified gene sequences to gut microorganisms or host cells.Rare acquisition of diet-derived DNA fragments cannot be ruled out, but if this occurs, it must have also occurred throughout mammalian history.The possible impact of genes not normally present in ruminant diets must, however, be considered.Discussion of the use of antibiotic resistance markers in transgene constructs must take into account the wider debate on the likely impact of antibiotic use in animal agriculture on the spread of antibiotic resistant bacteria.There is increasing evidence that overuse of antibiotics has lead to extensive transfer of antibiotic resistance genes between bacteria from the human and animal gut.In general this is likely to have a far greater impact than any rare transfer events involving resistance genes passing from transgenic plants to microbes.Our rapidly improving ability to use sophisticated molecular approaches to predict and track the consequences of genetic modification will help to ensure safe application of GM technology in agriculture in the future. GMO / rumen / ruminant nutrition / gene transferRésumé -Organismes génétiquement modifiés : conséquences pour la santé et la nutrition des ruminants.La plupart des plantes actuellement consommées par les ruminants d'élevage peut êtreou est déjà -manipulée génétiquement, et il est probable que ces plantes seront encore modifiées dans le futur pour améliorer leurs propriétés nutritionnelles, agronomiques ou technologiques.Par ailleurs, il est maintenant techniquement possible de modifier génétiquement les ferments d'ensilage ou les bactéries du rumen.Les chercheurs impliqués dans ces biotechnologies doivent donc être capables

Evelyne Forano

Harry J. Flint

Genetically modified organisms: consequences for ruminant health and nutrition

转基因生物：对反刍动物健康和营养的影响

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access archive for the deposit and dissemination of scientific research documents, whether they are published or not.The documents may come from teaching and research institutions in France or abroad, or from public or private research centers.L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.Consumer concerns about industrialized agriculture and food safety: importance, origin and possible solutions

S. Bonny

. Inra

. Agricultural Development And Advisory Service

Consumer concerns about industrialized agriculture and food safety: importance, origin and possible solutions

消费者对工业化农业和食品安全问题的关注：重要性、起源及可能的解决方案

Effective rumen degradability (ED) and intestinal digestibility (ID) of dry matter (DM) and crude protein (CP) of an expelling coconut meal sample were determined using in situ techniques.Degradation of coconut meal was characterised by long lag times and slow degradation rates for both DM and CP.Consequently, ED values were also low (51 and 36.5%,respectively).Values of ID of DM were reduced with the rumen incubation time from 81.6% (original feed) to 50.3% (48 h).On the contrary, ID of CP was constant (91.3% on average).Therefore, a content of 58% of rumen-undegraded digestible CP can be estimated for this sample.The apparent disagreement between the high values of both ID of CP and insoluble nitrogen in neutral detergent solution (70.5% of total nitrogen) is discussed. coconut meal / rumen degradability / intestinal digestibility / proteinRésumé -Dégradabilité dans le rumen et digestibilité dans l'intestin du tourteau de coprah.La dégradabilité théorique (DT) dans le rumen et la digestibilité dans l'intestin (DI) de la matière sèche (MS) et des matières azotées totales (MAT) d'un tourteau de coprah expeller ont été déterminées en utilisant des techniques in situ.La dégradation du tourteau de coprah a été caractérisée par des temps de latence très longs et des vitesses de dégradation faibles aussi bien pour la MS que pour les MAT.En conséquence, les valeurs de DT ont été faibles (51 et 36,5 %, respectivement).Les valeurs de DI pour la MS ont été diminuées avec l'augmentation du temps de séjour dans le rumen de 81,6 % (aliment de départ) à 50,3 % (48 h).En revanche, les valeurs de DI des MAT ont été stables (moyenne : 91,3 %).Le pourcentage de MAT digérées dans l'intestin de l'échantillon testé a donc été de 58 %.La divergence apparente entre les valeurs élevées de DI des MAT et d'azote insoluble dans une solution neutre détergente (NDF) (70,5 % de l'azote total) est discutée.tourteau de coprah / dégradabilité ruminale / digestibilité intestinale / protéine

Javier González

Santiago Andrés

María Remedios Alvir

Carlos Alberto Rodríguez

Rumen degradability and intestinal digestibility of coconut meal

椰子粕的瘤胃降解率和肠道消化率

Experiments were carried out to determine the effects of supplementation upon milk production and growing performances of Martinik hair sheep.Ewes weighing 49 kg LW were used in a 2-season experimental study.In the first trial, 3 energy supplement levels were offered to ewes suckling single lambs.The adjusted level (A, 8 ewes) was supplied to ensure that the litter had a daily weight gain (DWG) of 250 g.High (H, 8 ewes) and low (L, 8 ewes) levels were 150% and 75% of level A, respectively.In the second trial, comparative use of the H level was studied with 3 animal requirement levels: ewes suckling single lambs (SI, same ewes as H ewes), twins (TW, 8 ewes) and triplets (TR, 6 ewes), respectively.The experimental design was replicated in a second lambing season.The basal diet was chopped Digitaria decumbens hay (0.6 UFL, 4.6% CP) offered ad libitum.Supplements were composed of maize (65%), soya bean (3%), fish meal (8%) and dehydrated alfalfa (24%).The milk production (MP) of ewes on the L diet was lower (P < 0.05) than that of ewes on the A and H diets: 1142, 1415 and 1518 g .d -1 , respectively.H-fed ewes fattened during the lactating period while A and L ewes respectively maintained and lowered their body condition score (BCS).Differences recorded for lamb DWG were low, but this trait reached a maximum of 248 g .d -1 .MP varied significantly (P < 0.05) according to the litter size.Individual DWG was different for single, twin and triplet lambs (P < 0.001): 261, 188 and 143 g .d -1 , respectively.In intensive breeding conditions, recommended daily energy allowances taking into account a good BCS of ewes for successive reproduction are 1.47 UFL for single-suckling ewes and 2.17 UFL for twin-suckling ewes, in order to obtain a DWG of the litter of 250 and 400 g .d -1 , respectively.Martinik ewes / supplementation / milk production / pre-weaning growth Résumé -Alimentation des brebis allaitantes Martinik élevées dans des conditions intensives : effets de différents niveaux de concentrés ou de la taille de portée.L'effet de la complémentation sur les performances des ovins allaitants a été étudié chez les brebis à poils Martinik pesant 49 kg de

Gisèle Alexandre

Harry Archimède

Eric Chevaux

Gilles Aumont

Alain Xandé

Feeding supply of suckling Martinik ewes reared in intensive conditions: effects of supplement levels and litter size

集约化条件下马提尼克母羊哺乳期补饲供应：补饲水平和产羔数的影响

The objectives of this trial were to determine the effect of dietary protein content and the effect of the source of protein supplements on dry matter intake (DMI) and milk yield in dairy cows fed ad libitum.In addition, the interaction of protein supplement with the level of milk yield was studied to test the hypothesis that the DMI response to protein supplement depends on the nutrient requirements of the cows.Two groups of six lactating cows differing in milk yield (45 kg .d -1 and 38 kg .d -1 pre-treatment) were assigned to a double 3 × 3 Latin square design over periods of 3 weeks.The 3 treatments consisted of 3 complete diets (60% maize silage and 40% concentrate) with different protein sources and levels: low-protein supplement (LP) (5% soybean meal + 1.2% of urea in the diet), high-protein supplement containing soybean meal (HP-SB) (19% soybean meal) and high-protein supplement containing formaldehyde-treated soybean meal (HP-FTSB) (12% formaldehyde-treated soybean meal + 1.2% of urea in the diet).HP treatments significantly increased (P < 0.05) DMI (+1.2 kg .d -1 ), milk yield (+1.8 kg .d -1 ), 4% FCM (+2.5 kg .d -1 ) and fat content (+1.9 g .kg -1 ) compared to the LP treatment.These improvements were not related to the source of protein used or the level of milk yield.Compared to LP treatment, the HP-SB treatment increased milk protein content (+1.4 g .kg -1 ) (P < 0.05), whereas the HP-FTSB treatment had no significant effect.Intake and milk yield were increased by higher protein content in the diets independently of the source of protein used or the level of milk yield.dairy cow / intake / protein / milk yield Résumé -Effet du traitement de tannage des protéines au formol sur l'ingestion et la production des vaches laitières.Cet essai a pour objectif d'étudier l'effet de la teneur et de la nature des protéines de la ration sur les quantités ingérées et la production laitière chez les vaches laitières alimentées à volonté.De plus, le dispositif expérimental utilisé a permis d'étudier l'interaction entre le supplément protéique et le niveau de production afin de savoir si la réponse d'ingestion à un supplément de protéines était fonction des besoins nutritionnels des vaches.Deux groupes de six vaches laitières constitués selon le niveau de production (45 kg .j -1 et 38 kg .j -1 ) ont été répartis dans un schéma en double carré latin 3 × 3 avec des périodes de 3 semaines.Les traitements consistaient en : (1) un régime témoin négatif (LP) (5 % tourteaux de soja + 1,2 % d'urée dans la ration), (2) un régime tourteaux de soja (HP-SB) (19 % de tourteaux de soja) et (3) un régime tourteaux de soja tanné (HP-FTSB) (12 % de

Dhiaeddine M'hamed

Philippe Faverdin

Raymond Verité

Effects of the level and source of dietary protein on intake and milk yield in dairy cows

饲粮蛋白质水平和来源对奶牛采食量和产奶量的影响

The experiment was carried out with a sample of females from the 21st generation of lines R -and R + selected divergently for residual food intake in the laying period.After a breeding period of 18 weeks the hens of each line had been distributed among climatic rooms into two groups, one fed with a complete commercial feed (control group) and the other one with both a low calcium feed and oyster shells given in two separate troughs (treated group).Egg production was recorded during 77 days, egg and shell traits were obtained during the third and fourth weeks of the experiment, and the voluntary consumption of feed was measured over a period of 28 days.The treatment had a significant effect for both lines on average egg weight (p < 0.05), shell weight (p < 0.01), shell thickness (p < 0.01), and albumen thickness (p < 0.05).However, the line × treatment interaction was significant for yolk weight (p < 0.05) and voluntary calcium consumption (p < 0.001), indicating that the under-consuming line (R -) showed a better response to separate calcium feeding with a 40% decrease of its residual feed consumption, and better egg and shell qualities.The advantage of line R -might be related to the expression of a specific calcium appetite which is masked in line R + which ingests excess nutrients.laying hen / selection/ residual food consumption / separate calcium feeding / interaction Résumé -Réponse à l'alimentation calcique séparée de poules sélectionnées pour une faible (R -) ou forte (R + ) consommation alimentaire résiduelle.L'expérience a été réalisée sur un échantillon de poules pondeuses issues de la 21 e génération des lignées R -et R + sélectionnées de façon divergente sur la fraction résiduelle de la consommation alimentaire en période de ponte.Après une phase d'élevage de 18 semaines les poules de chaque lignée ont été réparties dans des chambres conditionnées

Henri Banga-Mboko

Andr� Bordas

Francis Minvielle

Pascal Leroy

Effects of separate calcium feeding on laying hens selected for low (R-) or high (R+) residual feed consumption

分饲钙对低残留采食量（R-）或高残留采食量（R+）选择蛋鸡的影响

Two trials were conducted in order to quantify the effects of reduction of dietary crude protein (CP) level, with or without fat addition, on heat production and energy balance in growing pigs.In trial 1, extreme variations in diet composition were obtained by using purified ingredients; conventional ingredients were used in trial 2. In each trial, three diets were prepared.Diet 1 had a conventional CP level (18.9 and 17.4% in trials 1 and 2, respectively) while diet 2 had a reduced CP level (12.3% and 13.9% in trials 1 and 2, respectively); diet 3 also had a reduced CP level (13.6 and 14.9%, respectively) and 3.5% (trial 1) or 4% (trial 2) fat was added.In both trials, diets 2 and 3 were supplemented with industrial amino acids in order to ensure similar ratios between digestible essential amino acids and net energy (NE) between diets while exceeding requirements of animals.Each diet was measured in 6 (trial 1) or 5 (trial 2) individually caged 60-kg pigs for digestibility, components of heat production (indirect calorimetry) and energy, protein and fat balances.Energy supply was standardised between diets (1.9 MJ NE per kg BW 0.60 ).A reduction of dietary CP level (diets 2 and 3 vs.diet 1) significantly reduced urinary nitrogen loss without impairing nitrogen gain in pigs.A reduction of dietary CP alone (diet 2 vs. diet 1) contributed to a significant reduction of total heat production and, more specifically, its component related to feed utilisation.This effect was accentuated when fat was added (diet 3 vs.diet 2).Fasting heat production (770 kJ per kg BW 0.60 ) and activity heat production (8% of ME intake) were not affected by dietary treatment.These results emphasise the interest of using an NE concept for estimating the energy value of pig feeds.pig / crude protein /crude fat / heat production / energy value Résumé -Effets de la réduction du taux de protéines et de l'addition de matières grasses dans l'aliment sur la production de chaleur et le bilan d'azote et d'énergie chez le porc en croissance.Dans le but de quantifier les effets d'une diminution de la teneur en matières azotées totales (MAT) et de l'addition de matières grasses dans l'aliment chez le porc, deux essais ont été réalisés.

Jean Noblet

Laurent Le Bellego

Jaap Van Milgen

Serge Dubois

Effects of reduced dietary protein level and fat addition on heat production and nitrogen and energy balance in growing pigs

降低日粮蛋白质水平和添加脂肪对生长猪产热、氮平衡和能量平衡的影响

Publication Information	Publisher: EDP Sciences，Publishing cycle: ，Journal Type: journal，Open Access Journals: No
Basic data	Year of publication: 1995，Proportion of original research papers: ，Self Citation Rate:， Gold OA Rate:

Annales de Zootechnie

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